Comprehensive Review of Theoretical Approaches to Ethics

Comprehensive Review of Theoretical Approaches to Ethics.

Tony.

Tony’s Business Series

Abstract

This paper provides a comprehensive review of two theoretical approaches to ethics. These two approaches are normative ethics and meta-ethics. The main emphasis of the paper will be on the normative ethics, as they apply more than meta-ethics in the business environment. The subdivisions of the normative ethics are also discussed. ECG (Expert Consulting Group) has to ensure that its employees comply with the stipulated company laws and regulations in order to ensure that the business operates smoothly. Ethical dilemma arises during the enforcement of this compliance. These theoretical perspectives will be applied to solve this dilemma. 

Introduction.

ECG is a fast-growing company that needs to ensure that there is efficiency in its operations and transactions. Efficiency can be affirmed if the employees of the company comply with the stipulated code of ethics. This ensures that the business operates smoothly. Ethical dilemma arises during the enforcement of this compliance. For instance, consider a hypothetical situation whereby a female employee is accused by all her co-workers of having an intimate relationship with one of the regular clients of the company. Thereafter, this female employee submits a formal complaint that her co-workers are infringing on her right to privacy. Since these accusations are unsubstantiated, they can be regarded as rumors; and the compliance officer is required to solve this problem using the apposite moral principles. This will ensure that the employees comply with the company laws and regulations. Ethical dilemmas are appropriately resolved when one utilizes apposite moral principle to resolve the problem. Hence, one needs to have a basic understanding of the appositeness and virtuousness of moral principles. This is possible if one understands the philosophical underpinnings of ethical morality.

Philosophy examines the basic concepts of the foundations of morality. Ethical inquiries lay down the foundation for a philosophical expository. Ethical inquiries are categorized into two broad groups: philosophical inquiries and non-philosophical inquiries. The non-philosophical inquiries encompass the areas of descriptive ethics and moral training. Philosophical inquiries are categorized into two branches: normative ethics and meta-ethics. Some philosophers recognize applied ethics as a third branch of philosophical inquiries (Villanueva, 1994).

The main differences between these three branches of philosophical inquiries are stated hereafter. Applied ethics attempts to solve problems, that have arisen due to some specific practices (and actions), through the use of general normative moral principles. Some philosophers consider applied ethics as a branch of normative ethics, since it utilizes normative moral principles. Normative ethics studies the systems that govern the ethical morality. Hence, it delineates a set of practical procedures and principles that determine whether an action is morally correct or morally wrong. Meta-ethics attempts to solve questions that are related to the nature of ethics (Waller, 2005). The main emphasis of this paper will be on normative ethics as it is applied to the stated hypothetical situation. However, metaethics will be reviewed briefly.

Meta-ethics.

Meta-ethics analyzes the nature of ethics based on the value theory, moral relativism and the probity of ethical principles. Meta-ethics do not evaluate the rectitude of moral choices, but it attempts to validate the moral claims. Hence, it is evident that meta-ethics influences normative ethics. It accomplishes this through its intrinsic virtue of evaluative corroboration of various ethical claims (Waller, 2005).

Meta-ethics utilizes three basic theories in its analysis. These theories are stated hereafter. First of all, the semantic theories evaluate moral claims by using cognitivist theories and non-cognitivist theories. Cognitivist theories utilize moral realism (ethical naturalism and ethical non-naturalism), error theory and ethical subjectivism (divine command theory and ideal observer theory). Non-cognitivist theories utilize universal prescriptivism, emotivism and quasi-realism during the evaluation of moral statements. Moreover, a meta-ethical semantic theory can be categorized as either centralist or non-centralist. Secondly, substantial theories utilize moral universalism (which is based on value monism and pluralism), moral nihilism and moral relativism to evaluate moral principles. Finally, justification theories utilize moral skepticism, ethical intuition, empiricism and moral rationalism to validate a moral claim (Waller, 2005)..

Normative ethics.

Normative ethics evaluate the standards of ethical morality based on their intrinsic rectitude. Normative ethics are based on several normative theories. A normative theory must have an intrinsic basic principle. The most intrinsic and basic principle of a normative theory is that the theory must be based on a specific set of norms. This means that if theory X is based on certain norms, then theory X is a normative theory. The requirement for norms ensures that the theory has intrinsic truth-conditions that can be used to determine the rectitude and appositeness of an action. Also, a normative theory has an intrinsic commitment to ethical foundationalism. Ethical foundationalism states that there is a single ultimate and absolute criterion of morality, and all other actions are evaluated relative to this absolute criterion. Moreover, all derivatives of ethical morality are organized based on their relativeness to this absolute moral criterion. Philosophers term this ultimate criterion the first principle of morality (abbreviated as FPM). The FPM of a particular normative theory distinguishes it from all other normative theories. Each FPM has an intrinsic condition that must be satisfied by an action. This means that an action, A, is morally correct when condition, C, exists and that it (condition C) is fulfilled by A (Villanueva, 1994).

Virtue ethics evaluate the actions of a person based on her behavior and character. Applying virtue ethics in ECG, the behavior and character of the female employee will determine if the compliance officer will act on the unsubstantiated claims or he will respect the privacy of the employee. Hence, if she is known to be immoral, the compliance officer will ensure that she is reproved or chastised based on these unsubstantiated claims. The converse also applies (Feiser, 2009).

Deontology evaluates the actions of a person based on the laid down guidelines, laws and regulations. Applying deontology in ECG, the actions of the female employee will be evaluated based on the constitution of the company. The standard code of conduct stipulates that the right to privacy of every employee must be respected and protected by the laws of the company. Since the claims are unsubstantiated, the compliance officers will have to consider the fact that her right to privacy was infringed by her coworkers. Therefore, the compliance officer will recommend that the co-workers must be reprimanded for their infringement of other people’s right (Feiser, 2005).

Teleological (or the consequentialism theory) states that the appropriateness of an action done by a person is dependent on the ultimate consequences of that particular action. The consequentialism theory is further categorized into ethical egotism, utilitarianism and ethical egoism. Thus, applying the overall concept of the consequentialism theory in ECG, the actions of the female employee made her co-workers to refocus their attentions to her. This means that her coworkers are spending working hours talking about her, and this has the effect of decreasing the productivity of these coworkers. The ultimate result would be a reduction in the overall output of the company. Thus the compliance officer must reprimand the female employee in order to kill the rumor, and ensure that the output of the company returns back to its optimal levels (Kamm, 2007).

Ethical egotism states that the actions of a person must be geared towards promoting his inflated ego and self-interests, even if the process harms other people. This concept encourages hedonism. Ethical egoism states that the actions of a person must be aimed towards fulfilling his self-interests, regardless of whether such actions are neutral, harmful or beneficial to the interests of other people. Both ethical egotism and ethical egoism can be applied to ECG. In this case, the compliance officer will base his decision on whether it will promote or harm the interests of the company. In this case, he will have to reprimand the female employee in order to kill the rumor and ensure that optimal worker productivity is achieved. Reprimanding the coworkers (of the female employee) will worsen the situation because most of the employees will spend their time criticizing the admonishment, thereby further reducing the overall output of the company (Kamm, 2007).

Utilitarianism states that the actions must maximize the happiness of the majority. Rule utilitarianism states that the action is considered to be morally correct if it conforms to the rule that happiness must be maximized for the majority, regardless of the feelings of the minority. Act utilitarianism states that the morality of an action is based on its consequences; whether it maximizes happiness or not. Hence, the overall concept of utilitarianism can be applied in ECG. In this case, the compliance officer will have to reprimand the female employee in order to please and content his workforce. The resulting maximization of happiness will enable the workers to regain their optimal productivity, thus ensuring that the total output of the company is optimized (Bredeson, 2011).

Conclusion.

Ethical dilemma arises during business operations. Such ethical dilemmas are appropriately resolved when one utilizes apposite moral principles to solve the problem. One therefore needs to have a basic understanding of the appositeness and virtuousness of moral principles. Moral principles have philosophical underpinnings. Philosophical inquiries are categorized into two branches: normative ethics and meta-ethics. Meta-ethics analyzes the nature of ethics based on the value theory, moral relativism and the probity of ethical principles. Normative ethics evaluate the standards of ethical morality based on their rectitude. The most intrinsic and basic principle of a normative theory is that the theory must be based on a specific set of norms. All types of normative theories can be used to solve an ethical dilemma, regardless of its complexity.

References.

Villanueva, E (1994). Philosophical Issues 5: Truth and Rationality. Atascadero, CA: Ridgeview
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Fieser, J. (2009). In Ethics: Discovering Right and Wrong.  Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Waller, B. (2005). Consider Ethics: Theory, Readings, and Contemporary Issues. New York,

            NY: Pearson Longman.

Kamm, F. M. (2007). Intricate Ethics: Rights, Responsibilities, and Permissible Harm. New

            York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Bredeson, D. (2011). Applied Business Ethics: A Skills-Based Approach. New York, NY.

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