Coastal Erosion

Coastal Erosion.

Author: Tony.

Abstract

This paper focuses on coastal erosion. The paper analyzes the wave actions that cause coastal erosion. The main wave actions are corrosion, attrition and hydraulic action. Also, the paper analyzes the main factors that influence coastal erosion. Moreover, the paper also analyzes the strategies used to control coastal erosion. Both structural and non-structural strategies would be analyzed.

Introduction.

           Coastal erosion refers to the gradual disintegration and wearing way of rocks and soils, from the shore, due to chemical dissolution, physical breakdown and the transportation of such material by wave actions. Coastal erosion is caused by waves that are generated by windstorms, ocean storms and any speeding motorboats. These waves cause loss of sediment (due to dissolution of soil), gradual disintegration of rocks and transitory sediment redistribution. Waves cause coastal erosion through a combination of the following processes: corrosion, hydraulic action, abrasion and impact processes. Coastal morphodynamics have shown that coastal erosion in a beach causes agglomeration of sediments in the adjacent areas (Dodd et al, 2003).

          Coastal erosion leads to rock formation on non-rocky coastlines. A rock formation is made up of multiple rock layers of varying thickness. These rock layers represent fracture zones which were formed due to variable degrees of erosion. Hard areas are eroded at a slower rate than soft areas with the resultant formation of pillars, tunnels, columns and bridges. Abrasion is the process of erosion caused by the mechanical effects of friction. Abrasion of soft rocks (and loose sand) is caused by strong winds, with the consequent development of a sandblasting effect. Some anthropogenic activities, such as dredging, have promoted coastal erosion. Moreover, climate change has led to increased coastal erosion (Zhang, 2004)

Wave action.

            Waves are created when wind blows over an expansive water surface. The water wave is a product of the friction created by the wind on the air-water interface. Waves are influenced by the fetch and the duration that the wind blows over the water body. Wave energy is directly proportional to the amount of moving water. There are three major wave actions: hydraulic action, attrition and corrosion/abrasion (Hyndman & Hyndman, 2010). The quantity of wave energy significantly influences the wave actions as is discussed below.

            The hydraulic actions of waves occurs when an incoming water wave strikes the face of a cliff; and in the process, the wave energy compresses the gases contained within the cracks in the cliff face. According to Boyle’s Law, the pressure of the compressed gases will subsequently increase. This gradual increase in pressure forces the surrounding rock material to disintegrate and splinter. The water wave removes the splinters, thus causing erosion of the rock. The water wave deposit these rock pieces onto the adjacent shoreline. Continued hydraulic actions cause the crack to develop into a cave (Hyndman & Hyndman, 2010).

            Attrition is a process that occurs when water waves force scree to collide with other rock debris. This collision process allows mechanical forces and friction to grind and chip the scree into small, round and smooth talus. A similar effect is also achieved after collision of the scree onto the cliff face (Hyndman & Hyndman, 2010).

            Corrasion and corrosion usually occur simultaneously. Corrasion (also termed as abrasion) is a process that occurs when high-energy water waves break on the surface of a cliff, thereby eroding it. Moreover, the hydraulic action of such water waves enables it to carry scree which will be subsequently smashed onto the cliff face, thereby causing more erosion on the cliff face. Corrosion occurs when acidified sea water causes chemical erosion (and the dissolution of small rock pieces) of rocks on the face of a cliff. Limestone rocks are particularly vulnerable to corrosion. Hydraulic action and high wave energy speeds up the process of corrosion (Hyndman & Hyndman, 2010).

Factors influencing coastal erosions.

            Costal erosions are determined by the erosion rate. Erosions rates are influenced by a myriad of factors which can be categorized into primary, secondary and tertiary factors.

The primary factors determine the rate of erosion. The principal primary factors are: hardness of rocks, sea levels, hydraulic action, foreshore stability, bathymetry and wave energy. The degree of hardness of ocean-facing rocks is determined by its intrinsic strength, its underlying non-cohesive scaffolding materials, and, the number and location of fissures in the rock. Fissures, low intrinsic rock strength and a weak non-cohesive scaffold reduce the hardness of rocks, and thus predispose them to erosion and disintegration. Usually, hydraulic action removes the scree from the debris lobe and the foreshore. Powerful hydraulic actions increase the debris flow, thereby increasing the rate of erosion of debris lobes. A stable foreshore enables a strong wave to smoothly dissipate its energy without altering the configuration of the foreshore. This reduces the extent of coastal erosion. Up-drift materials increase the stability of the foreshore. Bathymetry determines the energy of the water waves that reach the shoreline, and hence, it influences the degree of erosion of the cliff face. Shoals decrease the rate of erosion, since they dissipate most of the wave energy. Thus, the presence of a shoal determines the extent of coastal erosion. Rising sea levels due to global warming has led to the formation of high-energy water waves and altered bathymetry which has increased the rate of erosion (Gillie, 1997).

            The secondary factors influence the landscape and topography of the shoreline. They include the following: vegetation cover, resistance to attrition, slope hydrology, weathering processes, slope incline, and; erosion and accumulation of sediments at the foot of the cliff (Gillie, 1997).

The main tertiary factors are coastal management and mineral extraction. Appropriate coastal management reduces coastal erosion, and also mitigates the effects caused by coastal erosion. Mineral extraction along shorelines destabilizes the compactness of rocks, thereby increasing the rate of coastal erosion (Gillie, 1997).

Controlling coastal erosion.

            Coastal erosions have led to the destruction of beaches, thereby reducing their commercial value. The resulting economic pressure caused the concerned parties (government agencies, environmentalists and the private sector) to come up with strategies that are aimed at stabilizing the coastline. There are three main approaches used to control of coastal erosion (Clark, 2004). These approaches are described below.

1)      Hard structural stabilization.

            This involves hard structural engineering of structures such as groin, jetty, revetments, sea walls, rock armor and offshore breakwater structures. The construction of these structures is usually undertaken by the county or state government (Clark, 2004).

            Groins are impermeable compact solid structures that are constructed perpendicular to the water surface. They are constructed in collective groups termed as groin fields, which extend from the shore. The groin fields entrap and retain sediments, thus stabilizing the shoreline. Groins are fairly effective against unidirectional longshore currents. However, it alters the aesthetics of the shoreline by creating artificial scallop-shaped shoreline (Clark, 2004).

            Jetties stabilize channels which open into lakes, seas or oceans. A jetty permits ships and boats to enter a water channel. Hence, they are created in pairs, in order to ensure that the entrance into a channel is appropriately stabilized. Moreover, they can be used to stabilize man-made maritime structures such as piers and docks. However, they are prone to blockage caused by sand sedimentation (Clark, 2004).

            Seawalls are hard concrete structures constructed on inland locations of coastlines in order to protect the adjacent populations from coastal erosion and flooding. They reflect the wave power. They can be vertical, inclined or curved. The backwash of water waves removes sediments from the sea walls (Clark, 2004).

            Offshore breakwaters are concrete structures constructed parallel to the shoreline. They change the direction of waves, and reduce the wave energy. They protect an anchorage from the water waves and longshore drift (Clark, 2004).

            Revetments are wooden structures containing rock infill. They are constructed parallel to the shoreline, and they protect the base of a cliff from waves. Rock armor is made up of a pile of rocks placed on the shoreline, and their main functions are to absorb wave energy and retain sediments (Clark, 2004).

2)      Soft structure stabilization.

            It encompasses beach nourishment, breach drainage and sand dune stabilization. Beach nourishment involves deposition of sediments and sand on beaches, in order to replace the sand lost to erosion. Replacement sand is dredged from offshore locations, and transported to the beach. It is a safe method of restoring the aesthetic quality of a beach. However, the process of beach nourishment is relatively expensive. Sand dune stabilization is achieved by introducing a vegetation cover. Plants act as good trap for blown sand. Beach drainage involves lowering the water table, thereby causing an agglomeration of sediments and sand on the beach (Clark, 2004).

3)      Non-structural strategies.

They involve placing legal limitations on land-use and prohibition against development (that is, construction and exploitation of resources). However, most local authorities oppose these non-structural strategies (Clark, 2004).

Conclusion.

            Water waves cause loss of sediment, gradual disintegration of rocks and transitory sediment redistribution. Waves cause coastal erosion through a combination of the following processes: corrosion, hydraulic action, abrasion and impact processes. Costal erosions are determined by the erosion rate. Erosions rates are influenced by a myriad of factors which can be categorized into primary, secondary and tertiary factors. The principal primary factors are: hardness of rocks, sea levels, hydraulic action, foreshore stability, bathymetry and wave energy. The secondary factors are vegetation cover, resistance to attrition, slope hydrology, weathering processes, slope incline, and; erosion and accumulation of sediments at the foot of the cliff. There are three main approaches used to control of coastal erosion: Hard structural stabilization, soft structure stabilization and non-structural strategies.

References.

Clark, J. (2004). Integrated Management of Coastal Zones. Miami, FL: University of Miami

            Press.

Dodd, N; Blondeaux, P; Calvete, D; De Swart, H; Falqués, A; Hulscher, S; Różyński, G &

            Vittori, G. (2003). Understanding Coastal Morphodynamics Using Stability Methods.

            Journal of Coastal Research, 19 (4), 849-865.

Gillie, R. (1997). Causes of Coastal Erosion in Pacific Island Nations. Journal of Coastal

            Research. 24, 173-204.

Hyndman, D & Hyndman, D. (2010). Natural Hazards and Disasters. New York, NY: Brooks

            Cole.

Zhang, K. (2004). Global Warming and Coastal Erosion. Climate Change, 64, 41-58.

Portnoy’s Complaint

Portnoy’s Complaint.

Carl Stuart

Stuart Medical Series

Abstract

This paper focuses on a psychoanalytic formulation. The formulation will be constructed from the life of Alexander Portnoy, as it is described in the novel, Portnoy’s Complaint. The formulation will be based on two psychodynamic theories: self psychology and object relations. Basically, a formulation has the following 4 parts: a summarizing statement, a description of relevant non-dynamic factors, a psychodynamic explanation of the patient’s conflicts, and a prediction of the patient’s responses to therapy.  Parts one and two are applicable across the two formulations, and parts three and four will be presented for each theory.

Introduction.

This paper presents two psychodynamic formulations of a patient named, Alexander Portnoy, the main character in the novel, Portnoy’s Complaint. Self Psychology and the Object-Relations theory have been used to construct the formulations which have been presented in this paper. The formulations are modeled according to the formulations presented by Perry, Cooper, and Michels (1987).  Basically, a formulation has the following 4 parts: a summarizing statement, a description of relevant non-dynamic factors, a psychodynamic explanation of the patient’s conflicts, and a prediction of the patient’s responses to therapy (Perry, Cooper & Michels, 1987).  Parts one and two are applicable across the two formulations, and parts three and four will be presented for each theory.

I)                   Formulation according to the Object-Relations Theory.

Part I: A summarizing statement.

Alexander Portnoy is a young male who presented, on his own volition, with complaints of impotence and sexual obsessions. He is single and he sought treatment after he was kicked out by one of his female companions. This occurred while he was on a trip to Israel, where he made sexual moves to a female army lieutenant who rejected him. He attributes this rejection to his flustered persona. However, despite this rejection, he attempted to force himself on Naomi, who subsequently kicked him and castigated him upon learning of his impotence. He attributes this action to his sexual obsessions, which he states that he no control over. Portnoy’s obsession with sex manifests itself in several aspects of his life. He is hypersexual, and he exhibits self doubt, avoidance and sexual ideation (Roth, 1969).

            Portnoy’s appear to have developed an oedipal complex during his early childhood. He states that he believed that he had replaced his father as the focus of his mother’s affection. His father, Jack Portnoy, suffered from incessant constipation. He also sold insurance to the poor neighborhoods of Newark. However, Portnoy states that his father infused within him the essence of Jewish masculinity (Roth, 1969).

His mother, Sophie Ginsky Portnoy, had become reverential of Portnoy’s achievements, irrespective of their contextual significance. He states that his mother was an intelligent woman, who loved her family. However, Portnoy believes that his mother felt let down by his father, and that is why she pampered him with love. Also, he believes that his father loved and exalted his mother, and that is why he worked hard to ensure that he met the basic needs of the family in order to maintain the integrity of the family (Roth, 1969).

Portnoy’s demonstrates his obsession with sex as he narrates his history in the most sexually-explicit manner. He narrates that he saw his mother’s menstrual blood. He also explicitly and candidly narrates his masturbation experiences, his first handjob with Girardi, his sexual escapades with The Monkey, his threesome in Italy and his sexual encounters with Naomi and an army lieutenant in Israel (Roth, 1969).

Portnoy’s stated that his impotence had cost him numerous sexual relationships. He gives the example of the Israeli army lieutenant who rejected him after she learnt that he was impotent. He also stated that Naomi was disgusted after she learnt that he was impotent. Portnoy thinks that his impotence is a form of punishment for his mistreatment of The Monkey in Italy. He attributes his impotence to a feeling that he contracted an STD (sexually transmitted disease) from a prostitute in Italy (Roth, 1969).

Part II: Non-dynamic factors.

According to the history of presenting complaints that were presented by Portnoy, there were no discernable non-dynamic etiologies (such as genetic abnormalities) and pathologies (such as chronic conditions, systemic diseases or trauma) that can be attributed to his psychological disorder. However, one cannot disavow biological predisposition as the cause of the psychosocial disorder condition of hypochondria (Perry, Cooper & Michels, 1987).

Part III: Psychodynamic explanation of central conflicts.

The central problem of Portnoy is sexual obsession and low self-esteem. The sexual obsessions experienced by Portnoy can be attributed to Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD). This is exemplified by the fact that Portnoy stated that he started to masturbate after unsettling and objectionable thoughts (and mental images) began to invade (and thereafter remain in) his mind. This condition can be attributed to the oedipal phenomenon, whereby he felt that he has replaced his father as the sole companion of his mother (St.Clair, 2000). He stated that he noted that after masturbation, these images and thoughts disappeared. After that, Portnoy resorted to masturbation whenever unwelcome thoughts entered his mind. Thus, he attributed masturbation to these repetitive sexual thoughts. Within a short time, masturbation became repetitive and increasingly involuntary. This is despite the fact that Portnoy knew that masturbation was a taboo according to the Halacha. This contravention of the Halacha made Portnoy to have the feelings of self-guilt, and as his attempts to suppress the urges of masturbation (alongside his sexual obsession) failed, he began to hate his Jewish background and his Jewish upbringing. This caused him to think lowly of himself, and this resulted in him having a low self-esteem. Portnoy’s theme of sexual obsession was mainly centered on avoidance of contamination and fear of illness; as is exemplified by the fact that the inner fear that he had contracted an STD in Italy made him to become impotent at the time when his sexual urge was at the peak (Roth, 1969). However, psychological assessment links his impotence to his fantasy life (St.Clair, 2000). This linkage is explained below using the object-relations theory.

According to the Object-Relations Theory, the family experiences of a person during childhood shapes and influences his personal interrelationships as an adult, and also the way that he relates to dissimilar life situations. For instance, a person like Portnoy who experienced affection and care during his childhood would anticipate a similar behavior from the people whose actions remind him of his mother. This expectation was not forthcoming, as most of Jewish girls and women that Portnoy dated did not show him any deep affection and care (St.Clair, 2000).

During childhood, Portnoy formed images of persons and the accompanying contextual events. These formed images were converted into objects within his subconscious mind, and he thereafter carries these objects into his adult life. During adulthood, Portnoy used these objects to evaluate and comprehend his current relationships, and also to predict the behavior of a person. When his predictions about the girls he dated were proved to be false, he felt disconnected to the real world. This led him to form a fantasy world where he lived his fantasy life. The resulting unconscious phantasy was influenced by plastic images and the following perceptions: auditory, visual, olfaction, kinaesthesia and proprioceptive sensations. This unconscious phantasy adversely affected his psychomotor functions, thus causing impotence (St.Clair, 2000). There are strong indications that Portnoy sought expert psychological help after failing repeatedly to cause an ultimate realization of his unconscious phantasy, thus causing him to feel depressed and thus have a low self-esteem.

During the Portnoy’s childhood, projective identification enabled him to self-soothe (he was assured that his mother would always defend him). During adulthood, his projection of good objects to his female friends did not live up to his predicted results. This is because his expected mode of communication failed to convey the correct information. Thus, he created an unconscious phantasy where he projected good objects to imaginary fantasy women, and this strengthened the internalization of masturbation into his psyche. Hence, it is clear that Portnoy’s problem arose due to failure to harmoniously integrate the good and bad objects (St.Clair, 2000).

Part IV: Treatment.

The treatment will be aimed at alleviating anxieties while concurrently fostering the externalization of introjected objects through a process of transference of internal experience. Moreover, since sexual obsession has caused low self-esteem, it follows that treatment of sexual obsession will also simultaneously eliminate the problems of low-self esteem (St. Clair, 2000).

Initially, the psychiatrist will have to confine Portnoy, so that the triggers (visual images) of compulsive sexual behavior are eliminated. Moreover, the psychiatrist must explain to Portnoy that his preconceptions about sex are self-contradictory and objectionable; and that he needs to erase them from his mind if he wants to overcome his obsession. Furthermore, the psychiatrist must ensure that Portnoy has an adequate comprehension of sexual obsession. Also, by this act, the psychiatrist will be projecting an image of a mother figure, and this would foster the transference of a caring and affectionate mother who would enable Portnoy to regain his composure, and form new objects which would mould a new internal experience. It is expected that Portnoy will be willing to cooperate with the management strategies. Also, pharmacotherapy is necessary, and thus the psychiatrist must prescribe the following drugs: Sildenafil (a phosphodiesterrase-5 inhibitor that treats erectile dysfunction), anxiolytics such as SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors, for example fluoxetine, citalopram and sertlaline) (St.Claire, 2000).

II)                Formulation according to the Self Psychology Theory.

Part I and Part II outlined in the earlier material (formulation according to the Object-Relations Theory).

Part III: Psychodynamic explanation of central conflicts.

The central conflicts in Alexander Portnoy are sexual obsession and narcissism, alongside the rejection of the limitation within oneself and others. The sexual obsession developed out of the Oedipus complex. According to self psychology, psychopathology occurs due to a disruption of developmental needs. This results in a void in the entirety of the self. Alexander Portnoy was born as a nuclear self into the Portnoy family, while his parents had an image of his virtual self. The virtual self is attributed to the perceptions and hopes of both the father and mother. The harmonious interaction of the nuclear self and the virtual self would have led Portnoy to develop an appropriate cohesive self. However, his father was suffering from chronic constipation, and his job as an insurance broker meant that he was unavailable (to interact with his son) most of the time. The partial absence of his father led his mother to direct all her affection and care to Alexander Portnoy.  Thus, the partial absence of his father disrupted his developmental need of forming a cohesive self, as the paternal input into the virtual self was minimal. This led Portnoy to develop a grandiose self, whereby he believed that he was the main focus of his mother, and as such he ‘owned’ his mother. Moreover, he believed that his mother has substituted him in place of his father; and this led to the development of an inappropriate and superfluous Oedipus complex (St.Clair, 2000).

Portnoy’s father was not emphatically attuned to the needs of his son, and this led Portnoy to sustain and even develop his childhood phantasies. During his adolescence, his emphatic connection to his mother was also lost; and as such his phantasies took a new dimension of unrestrained sexual phantasies, and he thus started to engage in masturbation (St.Clair, 2000).

During his early childhood, Portnoy considered his mother as a self object who was an integral part of his self. This is due to the close relationship that he had formed with his mother. During adolescence, he lost this self object, and he experienced optimal frustrations. He was forced to use idealizing transference of the attributes of self objects into transitional objects. This attempt ensured that his optimal frustration was attenuated into a suboptimal frustration. His grandiose sexual phantasies and need for transitional objects was fulfilled by Girardi. This ingrained his sexual phantasies into his mind. Idealizing transference promoted the development of Portnoy’s narcissism and hedonism. However, the void created by the loss of the self object was supposed to be filled. Alter ego and twinship needs forced Portnoy to attempt to fill his void by dating several women, but none of the women he dated ever filled this void, and this made him depressed and he realized that he had a problem; and that is why he sought professional psychological assistance. Moreover, Portnoy has realized that his tripolar self is self-contradictory. This is because his grandiose sexual phantasies and his needs to achieve an idealized self image are diametrically opposed to his twinship needs that strive to ensure that he bears likeness to the people around him (St.Clair, 2000).

Part IV: Treatment.

The most appropriate management plan for Portnoy must encompass and integrate the following elements: emphatic immersion, vicarious introspection, mirroring transference, idealizing transference and twinship transference. The psychiatrist must use Portnoy’s aim for twinship need to his (the psychiatrist) advantage. Portnoy will attempt to elicit admiration from the psychiatrist through a process of idealizing transference. However, he will idealize the psychiatrist and himself. The psychiatrist must respond with emphatic immersion, or else Portnoy will be disappointed and reject any form of psychological counseling. The psychiatrist must use Portnoy’s own vicarious introspection to show him that the problems he is experiencing can be solved. The psychiatrist will formulate a hypothetical case of an imaginary person who successfully overcame sexual obsession. Thereafter, he must tell Portnoy about this imaginary person and how he overcame his obsessions, and it is likely that Portnoy will apply mirroring transference, and thereafter use the strategies of that imaginary person to solve his own problems (St.Clair, 2000).

Formulation summary.

Alexander Portnoy is a young male who presented with complaints of impotence and sexual obsessions. He is single, and he sought treatment after he was kicked out by one of his female companions. It appears that he developed an oedipal complex during his early childhood. Biological predispositions are thought to contribute to his hypochondria. The central conflicts in Alexander Portnoy are sexual obsession, low self-esteem and narcissism, alongside the rejection of the limitation within oneself and others. The most appropriate management plan for Portnoy must encompass and integrate the following elements: emphatic immersion, vicarious introspection, mirroring transference, idealizing transference, twinship transference and the alleviation of anxieties while concurrently fostering the externalization of introjected objects through a process of transference of internal experience. Also, pharmacotherapy using sildenafil and anxiolytics is necessary.

References.

Perry, S; Cooper, A & Michels, R. (1987). The Pyschdynamic Formulation: Its Purpose, Structure and Clinical Application. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 543-550.

Roth, P. (1969). Portnoy’s Complaints. New York, NY: Vintage Books.

St. Clair, M. (2000). Object Relations and Self Psychology: An Introduction (3rd Ed.). New York, NY: Thomson Learning.

A Border Passage: From Cairo to America - A Woman's Journey

Book review.

A Border Passage: From Cairo to America - A Woman's Journey.

By Leila Ahmed.

Penguin Books, pp 318.

            A passionately political Egyptian woman named Leila Ahmed has a problem identifying her unique Egyptian identity. She slowly comprehends that the Egyptian identity is related to the colonial history of Egypt, and the resultant foreign influence. Egyptians have variable descriptors depending on the situations. They define themselves as Islamic, Coptic, African, Mediterranean, Nilotic or a combination of these descriptors. Thus, the absence of a unique Egyptian identity has caused Egyptians to define themselves in relation to their land of Egypt (Leila 247).

            Leila Ahmed explores the multiple influences that mould self-identification in her book, A Border Passage: From Cairo to America - A Woman's Journey. She analyzes how cultural background, religious beliefs and national identification have shaped the Egyptian identity. The book is a narration of the emotional and intellectual journey of Leila Ahmed, a child born into an upper-class family who then proceeds to receive her primary education in a British school and her university education in Cambridge, and thereafter proceeds to become a female teacher who espouses feminist ideals. Leila was born into a wealthy Egyptian family which adhered to progressive ideals, and as such, they were supporters of Egyptian Independence from Britain. However, the family criticized the policies of Nasser, and the subsequent persecution forced shattered the family. The young Leila came into contact with various cultures during her school years. Later on in life, Leila Ahmed taught in England, United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the USA, and it is during this period that she attempted to form her unique self-identity which would integrate her attributes as a Muslim Arab woman of Egyptian extraction. This attempt saw her coming face to face with the contradictory natures of language, Islam, nationalism, sexism and variable interpretation of Islam; in relation to religious pluralism and multiculturalism. In her book, Leila Ahmed provides an appropriate expose of transition between dissimilar cultures, and how cultural differences affect the global society.

            Leila Ahmed commences her book with a discussion of her childhood experiences in Egypt. She was born into a relatively wealthy Egyptian family, and a Croatian governess was hired to take care of her. The Christian governess was deeply religious, and she thus told Leila numerous narratives about the supernatural nature of angels. She grew up in Cairo during the end of the British colonization of Egypt. The British had fostered harmonious co-existence among different groups such as Palestinians, Syrians, Lebanese, Jews and Armenians among other diverse groups of people that were living in Egypt at that time. In colonial Egypt, the British belief in freedom of conscience had enabled Judaism, orthodox Christianity, Catholicism, Sunni Islam, Shia Islam, protestant Christianity and other religions to coexist peaceful alongside an integrated transcendence above the cultural values of diverse cultures (Leila 51).

            The precepts of the multicultural Egyptian society created by the Great British Empire had a significant influence on the early life of Leila Ahmed. She aspired to be a professional woman, and even disapproved her mother for being a housewife. This led to numerous conflicts that strained daughter-mother relationship. However, when Leila’s father is afflicted by chronic pneumonia, Leila would come to value her mother as a noble, principled, self-effacing, affectionate, caring and a virtuous woman. This is because her mother showed an unprecedented level of dedication and zeal in caring for Leila’s father. It is during this time that Leila understood the strong bond that existed between her parents (Leila 70).

            Leila had several childhood friends. Gina and another unnamed Italian girl were her best childhood friends. Freddy, Gina’s elder brother subjected Leila to brutal games that were sexual in nature. When Leila’s mother learnt of these games, she immediately subjected Leila to a comprehensive medical examination, and thereafter disciplined and castigated her. From then henceforth, Leila was forbidden from playing outside the family compound. This angers young Leila, thereby worsening the strained daughter-mother relationship. Her mother thereafter ensured that Leila went to live with her maternal grandmother in Zatoun. There, Leila learns about Islam. She learns from her grandmother and other elder women that Islam propagates the ideals of pacifism and generosity. This was her only contact with Islamic teaching, as her father abhorred religious education, and thus Leila was educated in a secular school. However, Leila appreciated the value and uniqueness of the oral traditions of Islam, in contrast to the literal and authoritative interpretations of Islam. Also, in Zatoun, Leila learned of the powerlessness of women in a traditional Islamic society. She noted this powerlessness as she watched her grandmother and other women mourn the death of Fuad and Aida, her maternal uncle and maternal aunt respectively. Both Fuad and Aida committed suicide. These suicides can be attributed to the ultraconservative nature of Leila’s maternal grandfather (Leila 105).

            In her British school, she studied alongside Christians and Muslims, spoke fluent English (and sometimes French), and even anglicized her name from Leila to Lily. Her preference for walking and school chores astounded her classmates, especially those who came from a wealthy background like her. She studied European history, geography and ecology. Her astuteness and bibliophilic attribute saw her progress quickly in her education. However, the progress was not entirely smooth because at one point, Mr. Price, her English teacher, accused her of plagiarism thus preventing her from skipping a grade. Leila resented her English teachers because they disapproved of her aspirations to pursue mathematics and science. Daily Christian prayers were mandatory in her school, though Jews and Muslims were exempted from attending such prayer sessions. Her best friend in school was a Jewish girl named Joyce. While still in school, Leila learnt about the Muslim brotherhood, an Islamic organization that opposed westernization, secularization and colonialism of Egypt. Later on, the Muslim Brotherhood depicted itself as a pillar of Islamic neo-conservatism in the Middle East (Leila 157).

            Leila Ahmed proceeded to Cambridge for her university education. She pursued a degree in literature. In Cambridge, she encountered a new cultural setting where women were employed as teachers. Leila felt displaced in this cultural setting, a feeling that she shared with an Indian woman named Veena. Both Veena and Leila experienced covert racism, since they were not considered as part and parcel of the ruling white establishment.  This caused Leila to develop distaste for the arrogant nature of the British culture. This racism must be understood within the context of the 1960s. During the 1960s, the British society was permeated with xenophobia and racial intolerance which were caused by the mass influx of non-European immigrants into England, and the lethargic paranoia about the prosperity of the newly created European Union. Fortunately, Leila was able to complete her undergraduate studies successfully, and she thereafter returned to Egypt. She finds Egypt totally changed as the British had already left, and the ruling regime of Gamel Abdel Nasser had started to persecute her father (Leila 201).

            In her book, Leila Ahmed was able to keep her distance and balance when she discussed about the history post-colonial Egypt. This makes her book an evocative and neutral analysis of post-colonial Egypt during the reigns of the monarchy till the reign of Gamel Abdel Nasser. She states that when the British left, the king was left in charge of Egypt. King Farouk I maintained most of the colonial framework intact, including the multicultural character of Egypt. At that time, multicultural Cairo was a melting pot of spirituality. The city was relatively wealthy due to the Laissez-faire economic model, and the economic life was characterized by tourism, industries, retail trade, real estate development and massive infrastructural projects. However, a revolution in 1952 forced King Farouk I to abdicate the throne in favor of his son, Fuad II. King Fuad II ruled for a period of about a year before he was deposed by young revolutionaries in June 1953. Leila’s parents had progressive inclinations, and as such they supported the revolutionaries. This was an exception at that time, since most wealthy Egyptians supported the monarchy, and they also had a deep disdain for the revolutionaries whom they perceived as divisive pan-Arab nationalists who abided by Marxist ideals. Ultimately, the revolutionaries came to power, at a time when Leila’s father was a revered engineer who chaired the Nile Water Control Board. At that time, the Egyptian government unveiled their plan to build a modern high dam in the Nile River. Leila’s father expressed his reservations for this project and stated publicly that such a project would have a significant negative impact on the Nile River ecosystem. This incident of criticizing the government marked the beginning of the official harassment that Leila’s family would be subjected to constantly. It started with the government freezing the bank accounts of Leila’s father. Thereafter, Leila’s father fell sick with pneumonia, which worsened due to the fact that he could not afford to pay for medication because all his bank accounts were frozen (Leila 205).

            When Leila arrived home after completion of her undergraduate studies in the United Kingdom, she found her mother nursing her ill father. Leila provided some assistance, and then her mother advised her to leave Egypt. Her mother expressed her concerns about the radicalizing nature of the pan-Arabic socialism that has been adopted by the Nasser regime. Leila learnt that the pan-Arabism nationalistic and socialist policies of the increasingly repressive regime had destroyed the social fabric of the previously harmonious Egyptian society, and thus many Jews and Christians were forced to flee from Egypt. The remaining Copts were now forced to live in fear of the unknown. Leila left Egypt and went back to England where she enrolled for graduate studies (Leila 209). This journey provides an exemplar of the rapid transition in geographical locations that occurs throughout the book.

            In the 1960s, the antiwar movement was strong in British universities. In the university, Leila joined a group of academicians who regularly voiced their opposition to the maltreatment of individuals who come from the third world nations. Also, she read a book titled Orientalism. Orientalism was a book written by Edward Said, and it is considered as a humanist critique of occidental enlightenment.  During her final year of her graduate studies, Leila fell ill and she was diagnosed with sarcoidosis. Fortunately, she completed her graduate studies successfully, and she is offered a teaching position in UAE. In Abu Dhabi, she encountered the gulf Arabic culture which is different from her Egyptian Arabic culture. This cultural difference forced Leila to reassess her identity as an Arab. She also encountered a similar situation in the USA where she discovered that American feminists were hostile to perspectives of feminists who came from different cultures. Leila was once again forced to re-assess her identity as a feminist. However, she is gradually acculturated into the American society, and she became contented with the new intellectually stimulating environment, and she began to appreciate the role of men in the liberation women from their second class status. Leila Ahmed thereafter decided to abandon her Egyptian culture (Leila 298).

            In conclusion, this book focuses on how Leila Ahmed escaped from the oriental, occidental and feminist stereotypes. The book also provides a rich insight into the inner conflicts of a generation that experienced the collapse of imperialism, and the subsequent emergence of a liberal multicultural society. This generation was in a dilemma about its unique identity.  Also, the book also captures the period of the civil rights movement in America. Moreover, Leila has managed to clearly discuss the absolutist viewpoints of occidental feminists and their influence on the American culture. Additionally, the description of her acculturation and assimilation into the wider American society provides a superb reading.

Work cited

Ahmed, Leila. A Border Passage: From Cairo to America - A Woman's Journey. New York:

            Penguin, 2012. Print.